Antioxidative Role of Heterophagy, Autophagy, and Mitophagy in the Retina and Their Association with the Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD) Etiopathogenesis

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), an oxidative stress-linked neurodegenerative disease, leads to irreversible damage of the central retina and severe visual impairment. Advanced age long-standing influence stress cellular play crucial roles in AMD etiopathogenesis. Many authors emphasize role heterophagy, autophagy, mitophagy maintaining homeostasis retina. Relevantly modifying activity both macroautophagy pathways represents one new therapeutic strategies AMD. Our review provides overview antioxidative presents associations between dysregulations these molecular mechanisms The performed extensive analysis literature, employing PubMed Google Scholar, complying with 2013–2023 period, using following keywords: age-related degeneration, RPE cells, reactive oxygen species, stress, mitophagy. Heterophagy, retina; however, they become sluggish dysregulated contribute development progression. In retina, also NFE2L2 PGC-1α proteins, NFE2L2/PGC-1α/ARE signaling cascade, Nrf2 factor, p62/SQSTM1/Keap1-Nrf2/ARE pathway, circulating miRNAs, Yttrium oxide nanoparticles experimentally animal studies.